Retrospective - Incidental Inclusion of Copyright Protected Material

Not all infringement is necessarily wilful or intended, whether it is accidentally sharing a copyright protected image to a wider audience when it was intended to be shared to simply a small audience (albeit still, arguably, infringing copyright) or including works in your own that were not duly licensed as a matter of omission. As such the law does exclude liability for potential accidental inclusion, protecting those who have not intended to infringe copyright, but nevertheless have done so. How the law protects those who've incidentally included material in their works has been unclear due to the ambiguity of the provision in the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, but more clarity was shed on the provision in the early 2000s by the Court of Appeal.

The case dealing with incidental inclusion was Football Association Premier League Ltd & Ors v Panini UK Ltd, which dealt with collectible football stickers; a staple in many persons' youths (although this writer was more of the ice hockey disposition). Panini sold stickers, along with an album that you could collect them into, within the UK. The sticker collection comprised of nearly 400 football players from the English Premier League and other leagues, and the images used in the stickers contained the player wearing their respective club shirt. In many pictures the clubs' logos are fully visible, also sometimes including the Premier League logo on the sleeve of the football shirt. After a licence was issued to Topps Europe Limited (a tendering process that Panini was involved with) they created a similar sticker collection and accompanying album, and the Premier League too Panini to court for copyright infringement in relation to the club logos and the Premier League logo.

The main focus of the case was on whether Panini's inclusion of the logos in their stickers was copyright infringement, or whether it was protected under section 31 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. The provision allows for a finding of non-infringement in the event of a work's "...incidental inclusion in an artistic work, sound recording, film or broadcast"; however, what exactly amounted to an 'incidental' inclusion was uncertain.

Several draft stickers were rejected for good reason

Lord Justice Chadwick saw that the determination of whether a work does or does not infringe copyright has to be made "...considering the circumstances in which the relevant artistic work... was created". The circumstances would involve the relevant artist's mindset and potential reasons for the inclusion of a potentially infringing work in their work, as well as both commercial and aesthetic reasons for its inclusion. Emphasis is placed on the why, which undoubtedly will take into account any inclusions that are done merely feigning an incidental inclusion, when the true reason was to benefit from its inclusion.

In concluding the case Lord Justice Chadwick saw that, as the reason for the inclusion of the relevant club shirt was to make the images, and therefore the stickers, the most attractive to a would-be collector, it would be important for the shirts to be authentic and contain all logos. Due to this their inclusion could not have been purely incidental, as the objective of the images was to display the logos, although not prominently, but visibly enough for an informed collector to note them. His promptly then dismissed the appeal by Panini.

As can be seen incidental inclusion is by no means a straightforward assessment using bright line rules, but involves a more nuanced, objective assessment of a potentially infringing work's inclusion. Should the Premier League logo just have been present in an on-field advertising board in the background, or on a truck outside, arguably its inclusion would have been incidental. The reason why they were in the image was to give an aura of legitimacy, value and to effectively identify each player, team and league in the sticker set. Incidental inclusion doesn't come up often in IP, and this writer would love to see it applied in an Internet context somehow.

Retrospective - What is a 'Work' in Copyright?

Lawyers and the legal profession love their words and their singular interpretations, which can be quite odd from the perspective of the layman, especially when the interpretation seems quite obvious from the very beginning. Even so, we have learned to embrace this tradition, and understand that the nuanced meanings of words can have a huge impact on cases and their outcomes, and have no shame in jostling over the meanings of even the most basic of words. Intellectual property in this regard is no exception, and a word that is very important in terms of copyright is what is a 'work' protectable by copyright? As said, the answer may seem obvious and the discussion of what is a work seem a bit frivolous, but the reason why is incredibly important. What constitutes a 'work' under copyright sets up boundaries for the laws and expands or limits its application to both old and new artistic endeavors, making it one of the most important parts of interpretation when discussing the scope of copyright. Although discussed for for as long as copyright has existed, the modern definition of what a 'work' is came about in the 1960s through the hands of the House of Lords in the United Kingdom.

The case in question was Ladbroke (Football) Ltd v William Hill, which dealt with two competing companies in the sphere of bookmaking. The respondents to the appeal, William Hill, were firmly established in the marketplace, sending out weekly football odds to their customers during the season. The appellants, Ladbroke, have also been well-established players in the world of bookies, and entered the football bookmaking scene in the late 1950s, sending out coupons which looked very much like the ones William Hill sent to their customers. As a result William Hill sued Ladbroke for copyright infringement, with the case culminating in the highest court of the UK in 1964.

Sisyphus, for some reason, thought his work was for naught.

The coupons which the case concerned were very simple in their design, consisting of a list of the games that week along with boxes next to each match, allowing for the person to indicate the games' outcomes and therefore to change the odds of winning, as each bet would have to be successful for the individual to win. Some of the lists provided contained all of the games that week, whereas some only contained a selection of games. William Hill's coupons contained 16 lists, while Ladbroke's coupons contained 15 lists of games. The latter lists were almost identical to William Hill's ones, with only some slight deviations in terms of headers or different odds. What was allegedly copied were the possible wagers to be made and, to a large extent at least, the layout and headers of the lists. The big question that remained was whether such lists would be a work protectable under copyright.

Under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 a 'work' is defined as "...a work of any of those descriptions in which copyright subsists", which include musical, literary and artistic works, among others. That definition alone seems like not much help, but it's an important statement of what can be considered as obvious, which can be expanded upon. Although the wording differs from the Copyright Act 1956 which was at issue in the case, the considerations can be argued to applying equally to the newer 1988 Act.

The discussion in the case pertained mostly to whether such a work could be considered as an original work (more on which can be found here); however whether the sheer compilation of information into tables and lists would be a work is also quite important under this consideration. After all, even if a work is 'original', but does not qualify as a genuine 'work' (in most cases quite hard as the two are more or less intertwined), the piece would not attract copyright protection. In the end this is a determination by assessing the "...skill, judgment or labour" put into the creation of the work; or in other words, did the author of the work do anything more than the bare minimum in the creation of the work in question. Many have mentioned the very scattered approach to this question, as often judges will take into account expense, knowledge and even literary skill employed into the creation of the work; leaving the question without a definitive judicial consideration. This has been seen different in the United States, as under the Feist Publications v Rural Telephone Service decision (more on which can be found here) effort alone won't give a work protectability under copyright. In the end the appeal was dismissed by the House of Lords, and William Hill's coupons and lists were indeed protected by copyright.

As one can see what a 'work' is is quite ambiguous, and the consideration of judgment, skill and labor leaves it even more in the mist, as plain effort might not be the most accurate description or factor in deciding what truly amounts to a work or not. This uncertainty leaves short pieces and low-effort works potentially in the fringes of copyright, and can cause issues to those authors as a result. Clearly this is something which copyright should not cause, and might be a reason why the definition of a 'work' should be revisited by either the judiciary or the legislature in the future.

Thoughts on the Cancelled Washington Redskins' Trademarks

After having discussed what is inappropriate in trademarks a few months ago, the topic has since emerged in the global trademarks discussion after an update regarding the often debated Washington Redskins mark emerged. The discussion has largely focused on the reasoning of the US Trademark Trial and Appeal Board, and has yielded a certain level of hyperbole and misinformation regarding the mark and trademarks in general. It is because of this this humble writer thought it would be appropriate to expand more on what has happened and what the decision's impact truly is.

In the decision issued a few days ago, the TTAB cancelled the trademark "REDSKINS" (and five other marks) as a result of an appeal proceeding brought over by several Native American appellants who argued that the mark was disparaging to Native Americans, violating 15 USC 1052. The court found that at least 1/3 of Native Americans found the mark disparaging, satisfying the requirement under section 1052. As such the marks were cancelled; however this is not the end of the matter entirely.

Even after the mark has been cancelled the organization retains the rights in the marks during any appeal processes; something which Bob Raskopf, the trademark lawyer for the Redskins, has indicated they will do. Outside of the marks' registration the organization will still enjoy ample protection under both common law and federal legislation. Under 15 USC 1125 any person using of a mark to confuse the consumer as to its origins or quality, causing damage to the original user of that mark, can be held liable under the provision for damages resulting from that use. As such the Redskins could easily prevent the use of its mark even if their marks are cancelled. Under common law a mark is protectable through its use, or as was stated by Justice Pitney in United Drug Co v Theodore Rectans Co: "...the right to a particular mark grows out of its use, not its mere adoption; its function is simply to designate the goods as the product of a particular trader and to protect his good will against the sale of another's product as his". Through their extensive use of the Redskins mark since the team's beginnings in the 1930s, the team can protect the mark even outside of federal registration. This is highly important, and often forgotten.

A less offensive alternative?

It was however pointed out by Richard Biagi, a partner at a US intellectual property law firm, that: "[o]ne interesting twist is that owning a trademark registration is a requirement by Department of Homeland Security/US Customs in order to impound counterfeit goods entering the  US... So, it is possible that an overseas manufacturer of knock-off apparel or souvenirs bearing the REDSKINS mark could get their products through customs without any trouble – however, that still doesn't prohibit the NFL from suing the manufacturer for trademark infringement". A minor quibble, but worth mentioning in conjunction with the case.

As one can see the effects the decision potentially will have are minimal, at least in terms of the marks protection. The mark will be very much alive and worth protecting; however the negative perception of the mark and the team could damage its monetary worth. In addition 50 US Senators have put some pressure on the team to change its name in a recent letter to the NFL Commissioner Roger Goddell, further exasperating the team's current situation. The decision is symbolic at best, and it is still very likely it will be overturned on appeal.

The discussion surrounding the events has been lively, and has brought trademarks and their worth more into the consciousness of the general populous; yet the discussion has been riddled with inaccuracies as to the mark and its future and over its protectability as a result. Hopefully this article has cleared things up for some, and this writer for one will await the results of the forthcoming appeals process.

Source: Washington Post

What is Inappropriate in Trademarks?

As times have changes and society has moved on from its perceptions about race and related terminology, what is acceptable and what is not has shifted quite drastically. This type of shift more often than not also impacts the judicial sphere, and a great area where this can be seen is trademarks. Under several common law jurisdictions, such as the US, Canada and the UK, certain marks are not registrable because they are disparaging against certain people or is contrary to public morality. What entails such a mark will change as society's perceptions over what is offensive or disparaging change; however this issue has been brought back to light after a recent US Patent and Trademark Office decision over a mark.

The mark in question was 'Washington Redskin Potatoes', relating to the marketing of entertainment services and certain merchandise, with no actual connection to the sale or marketing of potatoes. In addition to the confusing connection with foodstuffs the services being sold by the applicant have nothing to do with the famous American football team either, increasing the uncertainty behind the name and its use.

Irrespective of these considerations what remains interesting is the rejection of the mark by the USPTO as they deemed "...the connotation [of the word Redskin] is disparaging", backed by the National Congress of American Indians' view on the word. This raises a point about the legitimacy of the Washington Redskins' trademark as well, due to it using the same mark which has been clearly deemed as disparaging. This, however, is still not as straightforward as one might think based on the USPTO's assessment of the Redskins Potatoes mark. In the case of Pro-Football v Harjo the very mark the football team owns came into contention, with the Court of Appeals upholding the team's mark due to the appellant not being able to challenge it as they were late to do so, and thus failed under equity. Although the initial Trademark Trial and Appeals Board decision did state that the mark "...may be disparaging of Native Americans to a substantial composite of this group of people... [and] may bring Native Americans into contempt or disrepute"; clearly aligning itself with the rationale of the USPTO's decision some 15 years later, the issue of whether the mark would be disparaging to American First Nation people never was fully addressed on appeal due to the inexcusable lateness of the complaint by the appellant.

How would such marks be treated in other common law jurisdictions then? In Canada the Canadian Trade-Marks Act stipulates that a mark cannot be awarded if it is "...likely to be mistaken for... any scandalous, obscene or immoral word or device". This could be a number of things, which could include names which could be seen as derogatory towards a subset of people, such as First Nations people. The Washington Redskins however do own the trademark in Canada as well as the US, clearly demonstrating that the mark could be seen as acceptable, although having been registered over 30 years ago. The mark has never been challenged in Canada, but should the Redskins' mark be challenged further or even potentially lost, it would undoubtedly spur Canadians to do the same.

In the UK under the current Trade Marks Act 1994 no marks can be registered which are "...contrary to public policy or to accepted principles of morality". In the case of Re Hallelujah Trade Mark this was seen to being an assessment of morality under current standards as to not cause offense to anyone or any segment of the populous. Much like in the US and Canada the mark is still registered in the UK, clearly indicating an acceptance of the mark which was registered nearly 30 years ago. The mark has not been challenged in the UK.

As can be clearly seen what is immoral or inappropriate can vary wildly over decades or even years, making a definitive line differentiating what is or isn't appropriate almost impossible to set. Morality has always been a subjective concept, making it even harder for the judiciary or the legislature to effectively enforce it without upsetting one party or the other. What can be said through the Redskins saga is that not all marks exist purely for the sake of offense, and that what truly is inappropriate in trademarks has to be left open and moldable to the standards that exist at the time of assessment. Whether the Washington Redskins' mark will be further challenged will be left to be seen; however this writer for one thinks most parties will not be able to do so under equity, at least not in the US.

Source: Bloomberg

Intellectual Property Law and Sports

As an avid fan of a number of sports, this writer for one understands the importance which it carries, not only to individuals who enjoy watching and rooting for their favorite teams and players, but for the organizations who benefit from fans engaging in their sport. Even though sports in general enjoys a massive following all over the world, its relation to intellectual property can allude the layman, and just how much teams and players can have invested in their particular organization or brand.

Probably the clearest example of intellectual property and sports teams being intertwined is their ownership of several trademarks, relating undoubtedly to their name, logos and the like, if possible to register. Such an example is the football club Manchester United, who own trademarks in their logo, name and their respective variations. Issues relating to trademarks and football clubs have gone as far as the European Court of Justice in Arsenal v Matthew Reed, only adding to the clear importance these types of marks carry for teams.

Even the equipment which is used in a variety of sports can be patented. Examples of this are old patents for a basket ball from the 1920s, and a patent for the manufacture of a baseball bat from 1902. As one can imagine, incredibly popular sports such as the above, can produce quite the monetary incentive to lock down the production of a certain essential piece of equipment. In addition to the equipment used in games, apparel used can be, and has been, patented. Basketball shoes and football pants have been patented in the early part of the 20th century. Much like the equipment themselves, the sale of apparel can be quite lucrative, with basketball shoes alone yielding over 2,7 billion dollars under Michael Jordan's name. Something which often does not come to mind as a patentable subject matter in relation to sports are the rules of the sports themselves. The rules of American football were patented in the 1980s, and the game ping-pong was patented as early as 1902.

On a more specific level intellectual property can even protect the personalty of athletes. These are what are called 'personality rights', which exist in the majority of common law countries for example. In the US, States have independent laws which protect personality rights, as opposed to a nation-wide federal law, such as in California. These rights protect the image of a celebrity, which includes the image of professional athletes in sports. This protection can extend to protect the person's image being used without authorization for the sale or promotion of goods or services.

A much lesser known, and more recent, instance of where one can see intellectual property law and sports collide, is in relation to tattoos (something which has been discussed more extensively on this blog before). A very minor issue, and something which will not be noticed by many, but goes to show just how nuanced the relationship between law and society can be, even when talking about sports.

As you can very well see, intellectual property has its place even in sports. What has been said above is only a slight overview, with much more to discuss on a more in depth scale, so if this piques your interest, please do read more about the subject.